by Brian Post
Beowulf is one of the oldest and most important Old English poems to survive the ages. Although the original author is unknown, most scholars agree he was a trained poet with a religious background. Some people believe he was a scop, or travelling bard, who sang Beowulf at festivals and gatherings. The text of Beowulf comes from a single manuscript composed in the early part of the eighth century, currently housed in the British Museum in London since 1753. The first English edition of the poem, translated by J. M. Kemble, was published in 1837. Since then, a number of editions have been published by scholars in Denmark, Germany, England, and the United States, giving rise to a debate over the true meaning of the original manuscript. Each of these translations retells the fundamental story while integrating the translator's interpretation. Through a comparison of three such translations, one gains insight into the historical legend of Beowulf and the time of transition between pagan and Christian ideals. The Ruth P. M. Lehmann, Burton Raffel, and R. K. Gordon editions manifest three different interpretations of the same Beowulf text. A broad analysis of these shows both similarities and differences in style, form, language, and content, while a critical analysis of a specific section reveals more subtle discrepancies in the translation.
The form and style of each edition reflect the translator's opinion as to how the poem should be presented. The Raffel and Lehmann versions follow a more traditional poetic form, while the Gordon translation is in a prose narrative format. Both Raffel and Lehmann derive their inspiration from the original Anglo-Saxon poetic structure, which is reminiscent of Gilgamesh and The Iliad. The Raffel translation occasionally contains a stress-pattern similar to the Old English, but is written in the author's own poetic style. Lehmann's writing has an iambic pattern of varying meter caused by the loss of inflectional endings from Old English to Modern English. Lehmann makes the strongest attempt to mimic the original poetic syntax, and this is obvious in her writing. The Gordon translation follows a narrative format with little regard for the syntax of the Old English poem. Gordon is more concerned with the intrinsic value of the story than with the syntax. All three editions recreate the alliteration of the original manuscript, however, the Lehmann translation clearly preserves it the best. Old English naturally tends toward alliteration, but it must be purposefully created in a translation. Each of the three editions also has a third-person omniscient narrator, allowing one to make the assumption that the point-of-view of the Old English manuscript was also third-person omniscient. An important stylistic feature of Beowulf is the usage of litotes, an understatement or negative statement that creates irony within the statement. For example, Hrothgar opens his beer hall and ". . . broke not his pledge, he bestowed bracelets and treasure at the banquet." (Gordon 2) Litotes are apparent throughout each translation and are most common in Gordon's version. This could be because he writes in prose and therefore has more leeway in the composition of his sentences.
The chapter structure and overall format of each translation help the writer reveal where he believes the climax or climaxes are. Lehmann's Beowulf is sectioned into four definite chapters, each with a climax. The first section has a weak climax at the birth and description of Beowulf. The next three sections all climax when Beowulf defeats the monster of that chapter. These climaxes seem true to the original Beowulf because the scop author would wish his audience to enjoy each climax separately. Raffel, in accordance with his Christian view of the poem, leads the reader to a single climax at the end of the story. This occurs when Beowulf sacrifices himself to the fire dragon. His single climax fits the Christian creation allegory perfectly and was certainly his intention. Gordon has many small climaxes throughout his translation, but none are very definite. He makes an attempt to keep the excitement of the Beowulf tale without diluting it's historical and narrative value.
Language barriers between Old English and Modern English create problems regarding the vocabulary available to the translator. The diction of each translation is often influenced by the loss of certain Old English words, leading to compromises between the meaning and suitability of the words in the translations. These compromises are most noticeable in the Lehmann translation, because the translator desires to stay as true to the Old English as possible. This occasionally creates confusion in the story and leads to combination words like "beerdrunk," "swordterror," "battleplay," and "swordwarrior." The Gordon and Raffel editions contain words like these, but far less frequently. In these translations, the editors choose vocabulary for meaning rather then suitability. The original Old English diction also contains Kennings, or dual-word descriptions of characters and objects based on a trait or quality they possess. Kennings are a metaphorical component of Anglo-Saxon poetry and have carried over into the various translations of Beowulf. For example, direct translation of the Old English hronrade is whale-road, but the object actually described is the sea or ocean. Kennings are important not only because they are a traditional component of Old English poetry, but because they provide colorful imagery without a lengthy description.
There are two themes to Beowulf, and both are easily supported. The theme most commonly agreed upon is good versus evil, but an underlying theme is one of Christianity or paganism. A controversy exists between scholars as to whether Beowulf was written with Christian aspects, or whether they were added later. Either is entirely possible, and Beowulf can be interpreted as either a Christian allegory for salvation or a pagan legend. Beowulf viewed with a good versus evil theme exemplifies the time period in which it was written and tells an exciting legend. Beowulf is the good hero, and the monsters he kills are all evil entities. Beowulf serves as a symbol of the good aspects of society-wisdom, strength, pride, heroism, honor, and community. The conflicts between good and evil are entertaining, but leave very little reason for in-depth analysis.
From a Christian perspective, Beowulf is a Christ figure and the savior of the Danes. He protects them from Grendel and Grendel's mother, and eventually sacrifices himself to defeat the fearsome dragon and save his people. The monsters he faces are murderous beasts, kindred of the devil and his minions. These beasts are descended from Cain, a biblical figure who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy. Similar religious undertones are present throughout the entire story, furthering the concept of Beowulf as a Christian allegory. Beowulf repeatedly acknowledges God as his protector, and credits all of his victories and accomplishments to God. When Beowulf and his men land in Denmark safe and unhindered, they give ". . . thanks to God for their easy crossing." (Raffel 228) He gives similar thanks when he defeats both Grendel and Grendel's mother. Beowulf fights with Grendel and ". . . killed the monster, as God had meant him to do." (Raffel 1273) In combat with Grendel's mother, Beowulf wins because of a ". . . Holy God, who sent him victory. . ." (Raffel 1554) After victory Beowulf gives a speech in which he states ". . . the fight was all but ended, if God had not protected me." (Gordon 30) Beowulf is God's chosen hero, and he embodies good and Christian virtues. The monsters Beowulf conquers are repeatedly referred to as God's foes and enemies of God, revealing that they are evil and unholy. Beowulf's battle with the dragon, however, is more than simply a conflict. A thief steals from the dragon, and stealing is against God's commandments. The dragon ravages the countryside as a result, signifying God's wrath, and Beowulf sacrifices himself to the dragon as penance for man's sins.
Beowulf clearly contains Christian beliefs, but most of these can be paralleled with the pagan practices of the time period. Beowulf is a proud and noble warrior, and his hubris forces him into situations where vengeance and bloodlust are his only important feelings. Beowulf states that "It is better for us all to avenge our friends, not mourn them forever." (Raffel 1385) Vengeance is a pagan trait, and is clearly in conflict with the Christian belief in turning the other cheek. Instead of sympathy and mourning, Beowulf is anxious to spill blood for his fallen comrades. He is a good king, and his benevolence and generosity can be attributed to this fact. He kills Grendel and Grendel's mother in an attempt to help another king and gain fame. His conflict with the dragon is for similar purposes. Beowulf must protect his people as king, and he kills the dragon because it is dangerous to his people. Beowulf states that ". . . I, aged protector of the people, wish to seek the fight, if the foul foe comes out of his cave to face me." (Gordon 45) Once again Beowulf's hubris forces him into combat with a beast. Beowulf's funeral is held like a pagan death ceremony with the burning of the body on a pyre.
The specific edition read can affect how a reader views the theme. The Raffel translation makes every attempt to include God and Christian beliefs throughout the story. Raffel feels that Beowulf was indeed written with Christianity in mind, and in his opinion the author was undoubtedly a Christian. Lehmann acknowledges that these Christian elements are present but is far more concerned with translating the poetic and syntactical aspects of the poem. Gordon is similarly unbiased towards Beowulf as a Christian allegory. He is interested in the story as a historical pagan legend and does not embellish Christian ideals.
Critiquing a specific sequence in the story completes a critical analysis of Beowulf. The events occurring between Beowulf's landing in Denmark and the death of Grendel are an excellent basis of comparison. Beowulf's men are the "Weders" in the Lehmann and Gordon editions, but they are only the "Geats" in the Raffel edition. The first person encountered in Denmark is the coast guard, and his description also varies between versions. Raffel refers to him as "Hrothgar's lieutenant," (Raffel 233) while Gordon feels he is a "watchman" and "fearless servant," (Gordon 6) and Lehmann describes him simply as "Hrothgar's watchman." (Lehmann 234) The Danish coast guard notices the Geats, and he inquires about their activities in Denmark. Beowulf says that he and his men are the Geats and are friendly to Hrothgar. This question is "Whose soldiers are you?" (Raffel 237) compared to "Who may ye be, having armor," (Lehmann 237) and then, "What warriors are ye, clad in corselets." (Gordon 5) Beowulf wishes to help the Danes destroy Grendel. The guard is impressed and leads the Geats to Hrothgar's hall, Herot. Beowulf's introduction differs between versions. He says, "My father was a famous soldier, known far and wide as a leader of men. His name was Edgetho," (Raffel 261) or "My father was famous in Falkmoot and Hall, an able chieftain, Ecgtheow, his name." (Lehmann 231) or "My father was famed among the peoples, a noble high prince called Ecgtheow. . ." (Gordon 5) Hrothgar acknowledges Beowulf and his men, and Beowulf explains his purpose in Denmark. Wolfgar and Hrothgar tell Beowulf that he is a respected ally. Beowulf claims that he will fight Grendel if God allows him. Raffel's Christian influence can be seen in "God must decide who will be given to death's cold grip." (Raffel 440) as compared to "He must believe in fate in the day of doom, when death takes him." (Lehmann 440) and "There he whom death takes must needs trust to the judging of the Lord." (Gordon 8) After a boasting match between Beowulf and Unferth, Hrothgar decides that it is bedtime. Beowulf undresses by removing his armor, climbs into bed and waits for Grendel. Each translation voices the thoughts of Beowulf's men differently. Raffel states that "At his side, each of them sure that he was lost To the home he loved, to the high-walled towns," (Raffel 691) while Lehmann felt "To none it seemed likely he should leave Denmark and behold at hand the home he loved." (Lehmann 691) and Gordon writes "None of them thought that he should go thence and seek again the loved land." (Gordon 13) Beowulf doesn't need weapons to fight Grendel and reminds the reader that his success rests ultimately with God. Grendel finally arrives, forces the door open, and kills one of Beowulf's thanes. The imagery associated with Grendel's killing is grotesque but very similar between translations. "Grendel snatched at the first Geat he came to, ripped him apart, cut his body to bits with powerful jaws, drank the blood from his veins and bolted him down, hands and feet." (Raffel 739) or "he clutched instantly a sleeping warrior, slit him greedily, bit bone and flesh, blood engorging, glutted on gobbets, gulping his hands and feet." (Lehmann 739) and ". . . he quickly seized a sleeping warrior; suddenly tore him asunder, devoured his body, drank the blood from his veins, swallowed him with large bites." (Gordon 14) Next, Grendel attacks Beowulf. The Danes wake up and come to watch the fight. They hack at Grendel with weapons, but have no effect. The description of their swords differs between translations. ". . . Beowulf's Band had jumped from their beds, ancestral Swords raised and ready, determined To protect their prince if they could. Their courage Was great but all wasted: they could hack at Grendel From every side, trying to open A path for his evil soul, but their points Could not hurt him, the sharpest and hardest iron Could not scratch at his skin. . ." (Raffel 794) ". . . Beowulf's men most eagerly drew heirlooms of steel for the life of their lord; their illustrious prince they meant to cover when they might do so. They did not reckon on reaching the struggle, those brave-mined battle-fighters, aiming to assail him from every side seeking his soul: no sword of war, not any on earth of iron most splendid, could mar or touch that miscreant." (Lehmann 794) "Beowulf's men brandished old swords, wished to save their leader's life, the famous prince, if only they could. They did not know, when they were in the midst of the struggle the stern warriors, and wished to strike on all sides, how to seek Grendel's life. No choicest of swords on the earth, no war-spear, would pierce the evil monster." (Gordon 15) Beowulf rips Grendel's arm off and hangs it on the wall for everyone to see. Raffel's description reads, "From the rafters where Beowulf had hung it, was the monster's arm, claw and shoulder and all." (Raffel 834) Lehmann feels "That was a signal proof when the mighty man mounted the hand arm and shoulder-- there altogether was Grendel's grip-- under the gabled roof." (Lehmann 834) But Gordon knows "that was a clear token when the bold warrior laid down the hand, the arm and shoulder under the wide roof--it was all there together--the claw of Grendel." (Gordon 15) Grendel, mortally wounded and bleeding, staggers back to his lair to die.
Beowulf is a classic, one of the longest complete poems of Old English and probably the most important product of Anglo-Saxon literature to come out of the Dark Ages of Europe. Every translation of this classic will contain some unique aspect that the translator has integrated into the story. As there will never be a completely accurate Modern English version of the Old English Beowulf, the most complete understanding of this poem will come from a comparative analysis of its many translations. The themes contained in Beowulf are still applicable to modern society, and it has remained an important piece of literary work to this day. The identity of the Beowulf author will probably never be discovered, but in a way this is beneficial to the scholars and translators who criticize the original text. If the author's identity were known, Beowulf would no longer be hidden behind a shroud of enigma. Beowulf is a mystery, and becoming a detective is a rewarding and enriching experience that leads to a better understanding of this fabulous literary work.
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